Internet Subcultures Explained: How Niche Online Communities Shape Digital Life

In the early 1990s, when the internet was still a text-based landscape of Usenet newsgroups and bulletin board systems, a peculiar community formed around a shared enthusiasm for a television show called Mystery Science Theater 3000. Members created fan fiction, developed inside jokes about robots and bad movies, coined terms that meant nothing to outsiders, and built social hierarchies based on who could produce the wittiest commentary. They had no physical meeting space, no formal organization, and most members never learned each other's real names. Yet they recognized each other instantly by their language, their references, and their sensibility.

That community--one of thousands forming simultaneously across the early internet--represented something genuinely new in human social history: a subculture that existed entirely in digital space, bound not by geography or proximity but by shared interest, shared language, and shared identity. Three decades later, internet subcultures have become one of the most powerful forces in contemporary culture, generating the language, humor, aesthetics, political movements, and consumer trends that define the digital age.

Internet subcultures are distinct online communities with shared interests, specialized language, internal norms, and recognizable group identity--often invisible to mainstream observers but vibrant, creative, and deeply influential within their niches and, increasingly, far beyond them. Understanding how these communities form, function, and influence broader culture is essential for understanding how culture itself works in the internet age.

What Exactly Is an Internet Subculture?

A subculture, in sociological terms, is a group within a larger culture that distinguishes itself through distinct values, practices, aesthetics, or beliefs. Traditional subcultures--punks, goths, hippies, skinheads--were defined by visible markers: clothing, music, physical spaces, and face-to-face social networks. They required geographic co-location. You became a punk by going to punk shows, shopping at punk stores, and hanging out with punks in your city.

Internet subcultures operate on fundamentally different principles. They form around shared interests, values, or experiences rather than geographic proximity, and they are enabled by the internet's ability to connect geographically dispersed people with niche interests that might never achieve critical mass in any single physical location. A person fascinated by mechanical keyboards, or retro computing, or competitive yo-yoing, or the philosophy of effective altruism might be the only person with that interest in their town. Online, they can find thousands of others who share it.

The defining characteristics of internet subcultures include:

Specialized vocabulary and communication style: Terms, acronyms, and jargon that insiders understand and outsiders do not
Shared references and humor: Inside jokes, memes, and cultural touchstones that signal membership
Behavioral norms: Expectations about how members should interact, what is valued, and what is taboo
Identity markers: Aesthetics, usernames, avatars, and profile styles that signal belonging
Status hierarchies: Recognition systems that establish who is a respected insider and who is a newcomer
Boundary maintenance: Mechanisms for distinguishing insiders from outsiders and managing entry

These characteristics mirror the features of offline subcultures, but internet subcultures develop and maintain them through digital means--text, images, video, platform features, and algorithmic amplification--rather than through physical presence and face-to-face interaction.

How Internet Subcultures Form: The Five-Stage Lifecycle

Internet subcultures do not appear fully formed. They emerge through a recognizable developmental process that typically follows five stages.

Stage 1: Aggregation

The process begins when people with a shared interest find each other online. A forum thread gains traction. A subreddit is created. A Discord server starts attracting members. A hashtag begins accumulating posts. At this stage, the group is loose, open, and focused primarily on the shared interest itself. People discuss the topic, share resources, ask questions, and help each other. There is little sense of group identity beyond the shared enthusiasm.

Platforms that enable aggregation:

Reddit's subreddit system allows anyone to create a community around any topic
Discord servers provide real-time communication spaces for interest groups
Facebook groups aggregate people around shared interests within the broader platform
Dedicated forums and websites serve specific communities
Tumblr tags and TikTok hashtags create loose aggregations around interests and aesthetics

Stage 2: Differentiation

As the community stabilizes, it begins developing the cultural elements that distinguish it from the broader internet. Members coin terms. Recurring jokes become memes. Certain posts or events become shared reference points. Newcomers begin to notice that there is a "way things are done" in this community that differs from other places online.

This stage is where specialized language emerges--the linguistic markers that will become the subculture's most distinctive feature. The cryptocurrency community develops terms like "HODL," "to the moon," "diamond hands," and "WAGMI." The fitness community creates "natty or not," "noob gains," and "bro split." Gaming communities generate vast vocabularies of terms for strategies, player types, and in-game phenomena that are incomprehensible to outsiders.

Stage 3: Identity Consolidation

The critical transition occurs when membership in the community becomes part of how people define themselves. Participants shift from "I'm someone who is interested in X" to "I'm part of the X community" to "I'm an X person." The interest becomes an identity. At this point, the community develops stronger boundaries, more elaborate norms, and more sophisticated mechanisms for recognizing insiders and excluding outsiders.

Identity consolidation is often accelerated by:

External conflict -- criticism or mockery from outsiders strengthens in-group bonds
Shared adversity -- challenges that the community faces together (platform bans, media misrepresentation)
Cultural production -- the community creates enough original content to sustain a distinct cultural ecosystem
Leadership emergence -- influential members become recognized figures who embody community values

Stage 4: Formalization

Mature subcultures develop formal or semi-formal structures:

Moderation systems that enforce community norms
Onboarding processes (FAQs, wikis, introductory resources) that socialize newcomers
Status systems (karma, follower counts, moderator roles, verified status) that create internal hierarchies
Event schedules (weekly threads, community challenges, live events) that create shared temporal rhythms
Cross-platform presence -- the community spreads across multiple platforms while maintaining a coherent identity

Stage 5: Evolution or Decline

No subculture remains static. Mature internet subcultures either evolve--adapting to new members, new platforms, and changing cultural contexts--or decline through:

Mainstream absorption: The subculture's ideas and aesthetics spread so widely that the distinctive identity dissolves
Platform migration failure: The platform hosting the community changes or dies, and the community cannot successfully migrate
Internal fragmentation: Disagreements about community direction split the group into competing factions
Stagnation: The community stops producing new content and new members, becoming an archive rather than a living culture

Major Types of Internet Subcultures

Internet subcultures span an extraordinary range of interests and identities. Several major types illustrate the diversity and dynamics of online subcultural life.

Interest-Based Subcultures

These form around shared hobbies, enthusiasms, or areas of expertise:

Gaming communities: From broad categories (PC gamers, console gamers, speedrunners) to specific game communities (World of Warcraft guilds, Minecraft builders, competitive Smash Bros players)
Hobby communities: Mechanical keyboards, 3D printing, knitting, woodworking, audiophile equipment, fountain pens
Knowledge communities: Programming languages, science disciplines, history enthusiasts, true crime investigators
Collecting communities: Sneakerheads, vinyl record collectors, retro gaming collectors, trading card enthusiasts

Interest-based subcultures are typically the most welcoming to newcomers because their primary purpose is sharing enthusiasm and knowledge. They develop deep expertise and can be remarkably productive--open-source software communities, Wikipedia editors, and citizen science projects are all interest-based subcultures that produce tangible public goods.

Identity-Based Subcultures

These form around shared aspects of identity:

LGBTQ+ communities: Online spaces that provide support, information, and community for people whose identities may be marginalized in their physical environments
Disability and chronic illness communities: Spaces for sharing experiences, resources, and support (the "spoonie" community, neurodivergent communities)
Cultural and ethnic diaspora communities: Connecting people from shared cultural backgrounds across geographic dispersal
Age-based communities: Gen Z meme culture, boomer technology groups, millennial nostalgia communities

Identity-based subcultures often provide what researchers call surrogate community--genuine belonging and support for people who are isolated, marginalized, or geographically dispersed in their offline lives. For people with rare medical conditions, uncommon identities, or interests that are stigmatized in their local environment, online subcultures may be their primary source of understanding and connection.

Aesthetic Subcultures

These form around shared visual, musical, or lifestyle aesthetics:

Vaporwave: Nostalgic appropriation of 1980s and 1990s commercial aesthetics, Japanese text, pastel colors
Cottagecore: Romanticized rural domesticity, gardening, baking, simple living
Dark academia: Scholarly aesthetics, classical literature, old libraries, tweed and leather
Goblincore: Appreciation of nature's unglamorous elements--mushrooms, moss, frogs, mud
Cyberpunk / solarpunk / steampunk: Technology-focused aesthetic movements with distinct visual languages

Aesthetic subcultures thrive particularly on visually oriented platforms like Tumblr, Pinterest, Instagram, and TikTok. They produce enormous volumes of original creative content and often function as incubators for trends that eventually reach mainstream fashion, design, and media.

Ideological Subcultures

These form around shared political, philosophical, or ideological commitments:

Effective altruism: Data-driven approach to doing the most good
FIRE (Financial Independence, Retire Early): Aggressive saving and investing to achieve early retirement
Crypto / Web3: Decentralized technology as both investment and ideology
Prepper / survivalist communities: Preparation for societal disruption
Various political subcultures: From democratic socialism to libertarianism to the more extreme fringes

Ideological subcultures are the most likely to develop strong boundary maintenance and the most susceptible to radicalization dynamics, because ideological identity is more closely tied to moral judgment than interest or aesthetic identity. Disagreeing about keyboard switches is socially neutral; disagreeing about political ideology can feel like a moral betrayal.

Subculture Type	Primary Bond	Openness to Newcomers	Radicalization Risk	Cultural Output
Interest-based	Shared enthusiasm	High	Low	Knowledge, products, tools
Identity-based	Shared experience	Moderate (gatekeeping around authenticity)	Moderate	Support resources, advocacy
Aesthetic	Shared taste	High	Low	Art, fashion, music, media
Ideological	Shared beliefs	Low (requires ideological alignment)	High	Manifestos, analysis, activism

The Language of Subcultures: How Communities Develop Their Own Vocabulary

One of the most distinctive features of internet subcultures is their development of specialized language--vocabularies, speech patterns, and communication styles that create group identity and signal membership to insiders.

Why Subcultures Create New Language

The development of subcultural language serves multiple functions simultaneously:

Efficiency: Specialized terms compress complex ideas into shorthand that members instantly understand. When a cryptocurrency trader says "HODL," that single word conveys "hold your investment despite price drops, resisting the temptation to panic sell"--along with a shared history (the term originated from a typo in a 2013 Bitcoin forum post) and a shared value (conviction over panic).
Identity signaling: Using subcultural language correctly signals membership. Knowing when to use "based," "cope," "ratio," or "mid" demonstrates cultural fluency that cannot be faked without genuine immersion.
Boundary maintenance: Specialized language creates a comprehension barrier that separates insiders from outsiders. This barrier is not necessarily hostile--it simply ensures that participation requires enough engagement to have absorbed the community's vocabulary, which correlates roughly with absorbing its norms and values.
Creativity and play: Language creation is inherently creative, and subcultures often delight in linguistic invention for its own sake--coining terms, creating elaborate taxonomies, developing ironic or layered uses of existing words.

How Subcultural Language Spreads

Subcultural language follows a characteristic diffusion pattern:

Coinage: A term is created within a specific community, often spontaneously
Internal adoption: The term spreads within the community as members find it useful or entertaining
Cross-pollination: The term leaks to adjacent communities through overlapping membership
Mainstream adoption: If the term fills a communicative need that no existing word serves, it may spread to mainstream usage
Semantic shift: As the term reaches mainstream audiences, its meaning often changes--becoming broader, vaguer, or differently connoted than its subcultural original

Words like "troll," "spam," "viral," "meme," "ghosting," "catfishing," and "doomscrolling" all followed this path from niche subcultural vocabulary to mainstream English. The process typically takes months to years and often involves the term passing through several intermediary communities before reaching general usage.

The Subculture-to-Mainstream Pipeline

One of the most consequential dynamics of internet subcultures is their role as incubators for mainstream culture. Ideas, language, aesthetics, and trends that originate in niche online communities frequently spread to mainstream audiences through a recognizable pipeline.

How the Pipeline Works

Niche creation: An idea, aesthetic, or trend emerges in a small, dedicated community
Community refinement: The community iterates on the idea, developing it through collective creativity
Platform amplification: Algorithms detect engagement and begin surfacing the content to broader audiences
Intermediary adoption: Cultural translators--journalists, influencers, marketers--pick up the trend and repackage it for broader audiences
Mainstream saturation: The trend reaches mass awareness, often in a simplified or decontextualized form
Subcultural rejection: The originating community distances itself from the now-mainstream version, often declaring the trend "dead" or "cringe"

This cycle has accelerated dramatically with the rise of TikTok and algorithmic content distribution. Trends that once took years to move from niche to mainstream now complete the journey in weeks. The speed of this pipeline has profound implications:

Subcultures have shorter lifespans because mainstream absorption happens faster
Subcultural members feel their culture is constantly being "stolen" or diluted by mainstream adoption
The commercial value of subcultural trend-spotting has increased, creating an industry of cool-hunters and trend forecasters who monitor niche communities for emerging ideas
The feedback loop between subculture and mainstream has compressed, meaning subcultures are now partly created by mainstream attention rather than developing organically in obscurity

Examples of the Pipeline in Action

Fashion: Streetwear subculture, rooted in skateboarding, hip-hop, and Japanese fashion communities, spent decades as a niche before exploding into the mainstream fashion industry in the 2010s. Today, luxury fashion houses collaborate with streetwear brands, and the aesthetic has become the dominant casual fashion paradigm.

Music: Genres like vaporwave, lo-fi hip-hop, and hyperpop developed in small online communities before reaching mainstream streaming platforms. The "lo-fi beats to study to" phenomenon began as a niche aesthetic subculture and became one of the most popular ambient music categories on YouTube and Spotify.

Language: Terms coined in Black Twitter, gaming communities, and LGBTQ+ spaces regularly enter mainstream English, often losing their original nuances in the process. "Slay," "stan," "salty," "sus," and dozens of other terms followed this path.

Politics: The "Overton window" of acceptable political discourse is increasingly shifted by internet subcultures that normalize ideas in online spaces before they reach mainstream political discourse. This dynamic operates across the political spectrum.

Can Subcultures Influence Mainstream Culture?

The evidence is overwhelming that they can and do. Internet subcultures function as the research and development labs of contemporary culture, producing the raw materials--language, aesthetics, ideas, humor, social practices--that mainstream culture then adopts, adapts, and commercializes.

Several factors give internet subcultures disproportionate cultural influence:

Creative concentration: Subcultures attract people with intense passion for a subject, producing higher-density creative output per capita than mainstream culture
Iteration speed: Digital tools and instant distribution allow subcultures to iterate on ideas far faster than traditional cultural institutions
Authenticity appeal: Mainstream audiences are drawn to subcultural content precisely because it feels more authentic, more "real" than professionally produced culture
Algorithmic amplification: Platform algorithms detect high-engagement subcultural content and surface it to broader audiences, providing free distribution that previous generations of subcultures never had

The relationship is not entirely one-directional. Mainstream culture also influences subcultures, and the increasing speed and visibility of the pipeline has created dynamics where subcultures form in response to mainstream trends rather than independently of them. Some scholars argue that the very concept of a "subculture" is becoming less useful as the boundaries between niche and mainstream become increasingly porous and fluid.

Are Internet Subcultures More Extreme Than Offline Ones?

This question--whether online subcultures tend toward extremism more than their offline equivalents--is one of the most debated in internet culture research. The answer is nuanced.

Factors That Can Push Online Subcultures Toward Extremism

Anonymity and pseudonymity reduce the social costs of expressing extreme views, allowing members to explore positions they might self-censor offline
Echo chamber dynamics amplify agreement and suppress dissent, creating environments where the community's center of gravity can drift toward extremes without members noticing
Lack of moderating social pressure that comes from face-to-face interaction with diverse others
Algorithmic amplification of extreme content, which tends to generate more engagement than moderate content
Selection effects: Online communities self-select for intensity of interest, which can correlate with intensity of views
Competitive escalation: Status within ideological subcultures is often awarded for the most committed, most uncompromising positions, creating incentives to push the boundaries of acceptable opinion

Factors That Moderate Online Subcultures

Many subcultures are inherently benign--hobby communities, fan communities, support communities, and knowledge-sharing communities have no intrinsic tendency toward extremism
Active moderation by community leaders and platform administrators can effectively maintain healthy norms
Cross-pollination between communities exposes members to diverse perspectives that moderate extreme positions
Public visibility on major platforms creates accountability that counters anonymity effects
Internal diversity: Most subcultures contain members with varying levels of commitment and varying views, creating natural moderating forces

The research suggests that extremism is not inherent to internet subcultures but is a risk that certain types of subcultures face under certain conditions. Ideological subcultures on platforms with minimal moderation and strong anonymity face the highest risk. Interest-based subcultures on well-moderated platforms face the lowest risk.

The Radicalization Pathway

When radicalization does occur, it typically follows a pattern that researchers have documented across multiple contexts:

A person with a legitimate grievance or genuine interest finds a community that validates their experience
The community provides belonging, purpose, and a framework for understanding their situation
The framework increasingly identifies an out-group as responsible for the community's grievances
Moderate voices within the community are gradually marginalized or expelled
The remaining community normalizes increasingly extreme positions
Some members act on these positions in ways that have real-world consequences

This pathway is not unique to the internet--offline radicalization follows similar dynamics--but the internet accelerates it by making extremist communities easier to find, by providing constant reinforcement through 24/7 engagement, and by connecting geographically dispersed individuals who might never have reached critical mass for a movement in any single location.

Joining an Internet Subculture: The Socialization Process

Becoming a member of an internet subculture involves a process of socialization that mirrors, in condensed form, the processes by which people join offline social groups.

The Newcomer's Journey

Lurking: Most newcomers begin by observing without participating--reading posts, watching interactions, absorbing the community's norms and vocabulary. This phase can last days, weeks, or months depending on the community's complexity.
Tentative participation: The newcomer begins contributing--asking questions, sharing content, responding to others. Early contributions often reveal newcomer status through unfamiliarity with community norms (asking questions that are covered in the FAQ, using terminology incorrectly, violating unstated norms).
Feedback and correction: The community responds to newcomer participation through explicit correction ("Read the sidebar first"), implicit feedback (upvotes/downvotes, engagement/silence), or socialization by example (showing how things are done through their own participation).
Integration: As the newcomer absorbs the community's language, norms, and references, their participation becomes indistinguishable from established members'. They begin to feel belonging and identification with the community.
Establishment: Long-term members develop recognition, reputation, and sometimes formal roles (moderator, content creator, mentor) that deepen their investment in the community.

Gatekeeping: Who Gets In and Who Doesn't

Most subcultures engage in some form of gatekeeping--controlling who is accepted as a legitimate member. Gatekeeping takes multiple forms:

Knowledge tests: Demonstrating familiarity with community history, vocabulary, and references
Skill requirements: Producing content that meets community quality standards
Norm compliance: Behaving in ways that align with community expectations
Identity verification: In identity-based communities, demonstrating that you share the relevant identity characteristic
Initiation rituals: Some communities have formal or informal processes that newcomers must complete

Gatekeeping is contentious. Its defenders argue that it maintains community quality, prevents dilution of community culture, and protects members from outsiders who may not share the community's values. Its critics argue that it creates exclusion, reinforces power hierarchies, and can become toxic when used to bully or harass newcomers.

Do Internet Subcultures Replace Offline Community?

For some people, especially those with rare interests or in isolated locations, internet subcultures become their primary source of community and belonging. This raises important questions about whether digital community can fulfill the functions of offline community.

What Online Subcultures Provide

Belonging and acceptance for people whose interests or identities are marginalized in their local environment
Knowledge and expertise that may not be available locally
Emotional support from people who understand specific experiences
Creative collaboration with others who share specialized interests
Social connection that transcends geographic limitations

What Online Subcultures Cannot Fully Replace

Physical presence: Shared meals, hugs, physical assistance in crisis, the comfort of another person's presence
Incidental interaction: The unplanned encounters with diverse others that occur in physical communities
Multi-dimensional relationship: Offline relationships encompass the whole person; online relationships are often limited to the shared interest
Embodied trust: The trust that comes from physical vulnerability--being in the same room, making eye contact, reading body language

Research suggests that the most resilient social networks combine online and offline connection. Internet subcultures that organize physical meetups, conventions, or local chapters tend to develop stronger bonds and more sustained engagement than purely online communities. The online component enables the community to exist at scale; the offline component deepens individual relationships within it.

Dimension	Online Subcultures	Offline Communities
Geographic reach	Global	Local
Accessibility	24/7, from anywhere	Limited by time and place
Depth of shared interest	Very deep (self-selected)	Variable (proximity-based)
Physical support	Limited to advice and resources	Direct assistance possible
Diversity of interaction	Narrow (around shared interest)	Broad (incidental encounters)
Entry barrier	Low (often free and open)	Higher (geographic, economic)
Anonymity option	Available	Rare
Emotional support	Strong within shared context	Broader range of life contexts

The Dark Side of Internet Subcultures

While internet subcultures produce genuine community, creativity, and social value, they also harbor significant risks.

Toxicity and Harassment

Some subcultures develop norms that tolerate or encourage harassment, bullying, and targeted abuse. The combination of anonymity, group dynamics, and dehumanization of outsiders can produce coordinated harassment campaigns that cause real harm to their targets. Gaming communities, political subcultures, and fandoms have all produced documented instances of organized harassment.

Misinformation Ecosystems

Subcultures that develop strong boundaries and internal knowledge systems can become closed epistemic environments where misinformation circulates unchallenged. Conspiracy theory communities, alternative health communities, and certain political subcultures develop elaborate alternative knowledge systems that resist correction from outside sources because outside sources are themselves defined as untrustworthy.

Exploitation

The intensity of subcultural belonging creates vulnerabilities that can be exploited:

Financial exploitation: Cryptocurrency subcultures, multi-level marketing communities, and various "hustle culture" subcultures can pressure members into risky financial decisions
Emotional exploitation: Cult-like dynamics can develop in communities with charismatic leaders and strong boundary maintenance
Labor exploitation: Content creation subcultures can normalize unpaid labor for platform companies under the guise of community participation

While internet subcultures can provide genuine community for isolated people, they can also deepen isolation by providing a sufficient-seeming substitute for offline social life that prevents people from developing the face-to-face relationships that research consistently links to long-term wellbeing.

The Future of Internet Subcultures

Internet subcultures continue to evolve as platforms, technologies, and social dynamics change.

Emerging Trends

Platform fragmentation: As the internet moves from a few dominant platforms toward a more fragmented landscape (Mastodon, Bluesky, niche forums, Discord servers), subcultures may develop in more isolated environments with less cross-pollination
AI-generated content: The rise of AI-generated text, images, and video is already changing the creative dynamics within subcultures, with communities developing new norms around AI use and authenticity
Creator economy integration: Subcultures are increasingly intertwined with the creator economy, as community leaders monetize their influence and subcultural membership becomes a market segment
Virtual and augmented reality: Spatial computing may create new forms of subcultural gathering that blend online and offline characteristics
Algorithmic curation: As recommendation algorithms become more sophisticated, they increasingly determine which subcultures people encounter, raising questions about algorithmic influence on subcultural formation

The Permanent Significance of Internet Subcultures

Internet subcultures are not a novelty or a phase. They are a permanent feature of digital social life--the primary mechanism through which people form meaningful communities around shared interests, identities, and values in a globally connected world. Understanding their dynamics is not merely an academic exercise but a practical necessity for anyone navigating contemporary culture, whether as a participant, a creator, a marketer, a journalist, a teacher, or simply a citizen trying to understand the world they live in.

The most important thing to understand about internet subcultures is that they are not separate from "real" culture. They are where culture is made in the twenty-first century. The language people speak, the aesthetics they consume, the ideas they debate, and the identities they construct are increasingly shaped by the niche online communities where these cultural elements originate, develop, and eventually reach the mainstream. Ignoring internet subcultures means misunderstanding how culture works.

References and Further Reading

Thornton, S. (1995). Club Cultures: Music, Media and Subcultural Capital. Polity Press. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Club_Cultures
Shifman, L. (2014). Memes in Digital Culture. MIT Press. https://mitpress.mit.edu/9780262525435/memes-in-digital-culture/
Phillips, W. & Milner, R.M. (2017). The Ambivalence of the Internet: Mischief, Oddity, and Antagonism Online. Polity Press. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitney_Phillips
Nagle, A. (2017). Kill All Normies: Online Culture Wars from 4chan and Tumblr to Trump and the Alt-Right. Zero Books. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kill_All_Normies
Baym, N.K. (2015). Personal Connections in the Digital Age. 2nd ed. Polity Press. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nancy_Baym
Massanari, A. (2017). "#Gamergate and The Fappening: How Reddit's Algorithm, Governance, and Culture Support Toxic Technocultures." New Media & Society, 19(3), 329-346. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444815608807
Hebdige, D. (1979). Subculture: The Meaning of Style. Methuen. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subculture:_The_Meaning_of_Style
Marwick, A.E. & boyd, d. (2011). "I Tweet Honestly, I Tweet Passionately: Twitter Users, Context Collapse, and the Imagined Audience." New Media & Society, 13(1), 114-133. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444810365313
Rheingold, H. (2000). The Virtual Community: Homesteading on the Electronic Frontier. Revised ed. MIT Press. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Virtual_Community
Preece, J. (2000). Online Communities: Designing Usability, Supporting Sociability. John Wiley & Sons. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jenny_Preece
Postill, J. & Pink, S. (2012). "Social Media Ethnography: The Digital Researcher in a Messy Web." Media International Australia, 145(1), 123-134. https://doi.org/10.1177/1329878X1214500114

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