Common Psychology Terms Explained Without Jargon

Why Psychology Vocabulary Is Confusing

Someone says: "I'm so OCD about cleaning my desk." (Misuse—OCD is a debilitating disorder, not a personality quirk about organization)

A friend explains: "He's just projecting his insecurities." (Correct use—attributing his feelings to others)

An article claims: "This study proves that video games cause violence." (Misuse—correlation, not causation; psychology rarely "proves" anything)

Imprecise psychology terminology creates confusion, stigma, and misunderstanding about how minds work.

Psychology terms have migrated from clinical contexts into everyday language—often losing precision, gaining stigma, or becoming simplified to the point of inaccuracy. Introvert gets confused with shy. Empathy blurs with sympathy. Correlation is mistaken for causation.

Understanding actual definitions matters because:

• Prevents trivializing real disorders (calling preferences "OCD")
• Improves communication about behavior
• Reduces stigma around mental health
• Helps recognize patterns in yourself and others

This is the vocabulary that clarifies what's actually happening when people think, feel, and behave.

Personality and Temperament Terms

Introvert vs. Shy

Introvert:

• Definition: Oriented toward internal world; recharges energy through solitude
• Source: Carl Jung's theory of psychological types (1921)
• About: Energy management, not social fear
• Can be: Socially skilled, confident, comfortable in groups—just needs alone time afterward

Characteristics:

• Prefers small groups or one-on-one interaction
• Needs solitude to recharge after socializing
• Processes internally before speaking
• Drained by prolonged social exposure

Not necessarily: Shy, anxious, socially awkward, antisocial

Extrovert (opposite): Oriented toward external world; recharges through social interaction

Shy:

• Definition: Fear of negative social evaluation; anxiety about being judged
• Source: Social anxiety research (Leary, 1983)
• About: Fear and avoidance, not energy
• Can be: Extroverted (wants social connection but fears judgment)

Characteristics:

• Fears embarrassment or rejection
• Avoids social situations due to anxiety
• Self-conscious in interactions
• Wants connection but fear interferes

Not the same as: Introverted, antisocial, rude, unfriendly

The Confusion

Introverts are often assumed to be shy because both involve less social activity. But reasons differ:

Aspect	Introvert	Shy Person
Core	Energy management	Social fear
Motivation	Prefers solitude (positive)	Avoids social (negative)
Comfort	Comfortable alone	Lonely but too anxious to engage
Social skill	Can be highly skilled	Often skilled but inhibited by fear
After socializing	Tired (normal)	Relieved but regretful (anxiety reduced)

Combinations:

• Introverted + Not shy: Comfortable socially, chooses solitude for energy
• Extroverted + Shy: Craves social connection but paralyzed by fear
• Introverted + Shy: Both factors reinforce avoidance
• Extroverted + Not shy: Classic gregarious personality

Application: Don't assume someone avoiding parties is "shy"—they might just be an introvert managing energy. Don't assume someone talkative isn't shy—anxiety can coexist with social skill.

Empathy vs. Sympathy vs. Compassion

Empathy:

• Definition: Understanding and sharing another's emotional experience; feeling with
• Source: German Einfühlung (feeling into); Carl Rogers, person-centered therapy
• Mechanism: Perspective-taking, emotional resonance
• Types:
  • Cognitive empathy: Understanding intellectually what someone feels
  • Affective empathy: Actually feeling what someone feels (emotional contagion)
  • Empathic concern: Motivation to help based on empathy

Example: Your friend's parent dies. You imagine their grief, remember your own grief, feel sadness alongside them.

Sympathy:

• Definition: Feeling for someone from your own perspective; pity or concern without shared feeling
• Mechanism: External observation, not immersion
• Tone: Often implies distance, superiority, or condescension

Example: "I'm sorry for your loss. That must be hard." (Acknowledging from outside, not feeling with)

Compassion:

• Definition: Empathy plus action; recognizing suffering and motivated to alleviate it
• Source: Buddhist psychology, adapted in Western psychology (Neff, 2003)
• Components: Empathy + motivation to help + action

Example: Feeling friend's grief (empathy), wanting to help (compassion), bringing food and offering support (compassionate action).

The Differences

Term	Feel With?	Feel For?	Action Motivated?	Tone
Empathy	✅ Yes	Sometimes	Sometimes	Understanding, connection
Sympathy	❌ No	✅ Yes	Rarely	Concern, distance, pity
Compassion	✅ Yes	✅ Yes	✅ Yes	Warmth, helping, caring

Why distinction matters:

• Empathy without boundaries → Emotional exhaustion (feeling everyone's pain)
• Sympathy without empathy → Feels condescending ("I pity you")
• Compassion → Balanced (understand + care + help without drowning in emotion)

Brené Brown's distinction (2013): "Empathy fuels connection. Sympathy drives disconnection."

Application: If someone shares pain, empathy connects ("I understand, I've felt that"), sympathy distances ("Oh, you poor thing"). Compassion adds: "How can I help?"

Defense Mechanisms

Definition (Freud, 1894): Unconscious psychological strategies to protect ego from anxiety, shame, or uncomfortable truths.

Key characteristics:

• Unconscious: You don't realize you're using them
• Automatic: Triggered by threat to self-concept
• Protective: Reduce anxiety, preserve self-image
• Reality-distorting: Distort, deny, or reinterpret reality

Modern view: Not just Freudian; now recognized across therapeutic orientations (though terminology and emphasis vary).

Major Defense Mechanisms

Denial

Definition: Refusing to acknowledge reality.

Example:

• Alcoholic insists they don't have a problem despite clear evidence
• Smoker dismisses health risks: "It won't happen to me"

Function: Protects from overwhelming anxiety by rejecting threatening information.

Healthy vs. Unhealthy:

• Briefly refusing to accept shocking news (healthy: gives time to process)
• Long-term denial of obvious problems (unhealthy: prevents adaptation)

Projection

Definition: Attributing your own unacceptable thoughts, feelings, or motives to others.

Example:

• Feeling attraction to someone but accusing your partner of cheating
• Being dishonest but constantly suspecting others of lying
• Feeling inadequate but seeing everyone else as judgmental

Function: Protects from recognizing uncomfortable traits in yourself by seeing them in others.

Recognition: Ask yourself: "Am I accusing them of what I'm actually feeling/doing?"

Rationalization

Definition: Creating logical-sounding excuses for behaviors driven by unconscious or uncomfortable motives.

Example:

• Didn't get promotion: "I didn't want it anyway" (sour grapes)
• Cheating on diet: "I'll start fresh Monday"
• Not inviting someone: "They'd be uncomfortable in this crowd" (maybe you just don't like them)

Function: Preserves self-image by making behavior seem reasonable.

Test: Ask yourself: "Would I accept this reasoning from someone else?" If not, probably rationalization.

Displacement

Definition: Redirecting emotions from the source to a safer target.

Example:

• Angry at boss → Yell at spouse or kick the dog
• Frustrated with teacher → Take it out on classmate
• Anxious about work → Snap at kids

Function: Releases emotion without confronting actual source (who might be threatening).

Healthy version: Channeling emotion into productive outlet (art, exercise, journaling).

Sublimation

Definition: Channeling unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable activities.

Example:

• Aggressive impulses → Contact sports
• Sexual energy → Creative work
• Anxiety → Cleaning, organizing, productive work

Function: Transforms problematic urges into constructive behavior.

Considered: One of the healthiest defense mechanisms (Freud called it "mature" defense).

Repression

Definition: Unconsciously blocking threatening memories, thoughts, or feelings from awareness.

Example:

• No memory of childhood trauma
• "Forgetting" upsetting conversation
• Unable to recall your own hurtful behavior

Distinction from suppression:

• Repression: Unconscious (you don't know you're blocking)
• Suppression: Conscious (deliberately avoiding thinking about it)

Controversy: Debate over "recovered memories" and reliability of repressed content.

Reaction Formation

Definition: Expressing opposite of what you really feel to deny unacceptable impulses.

Example:

• Strongly attracted to someone → Treat them with hostility
• Homophobic behavior → Repressing same-sex attraction (sometimes)
• Hating someone → Excessive politeness or praise

Recognition: When behavior seems exaggerated or inconsistent with subtle cues.

Shakespeare (Hamlet): "The lady doth protest too much, methinks."

Defense Mechanisms Summary Table

Defense	What It Does	Example	Healthy?
Denial	Refuses reality	"I don't have a drinking problem"	Short-term: Maybe. Long-term: No
Projection	Sees your traits in others	"Everyone is out to get me" (you're hostile)	Generally unhealthy
Rationalization	Makes excuses	"I'm better off without that job"	Moderately unhealthy
Displacement	Redirects emotion	Angry at boss → Yell at family	Unhealthy (harms innocents)
Sublimation	Channels into constructive	Aggression → Sports	Healthy (most mature)
Repression	Blocks from awareness	No memory of trauma	Varies (protects but can cause symptoms)
Reaction Formation	Acts opposite to feelings	Hate someone → Overly nice	Unhealthy (exhausting, dishonest)

Application: When you notice strong defensiveness, ask: "What am I protecting myself from recognizing?" Awareness reduces unconscious use.

Cognitive Terms

Cognitive Dissonance

Definition (Leon Festinger, 1957): Psychological discomfort from holding contradictory beliefs, attitudes, or when behavior conflicts with beliefs.

Mechanism: Humans have drive for internal consistency. Inconsistency creates tension.

Classic example (Festinger's study):

• Participants did boring task
• Paid $1 or $20 to tell others it was fun (lie)
• Result: $1 group rated task as more enjoyable than $20 group

Why?:

• $20 group: "I lied for money" (no dissonance—external justification)
• $1 group: "I lied for almost nothing... maybe I actually found it interesting?" (resolves dissonance by changing belief)

Common sources:

• Acting against values (diet but eating cake)
• Learning information that contradicts beliefs (evidence against political view)
• Post-decision dissonance (buyer's remorse)

Resolution strategies:

Strategy	Example
Change behavior	Stop eating cake; align action with belief
Change belief	"Diets are unhealthy anyway" (rationalization)
Add justification	"I deserve this because I exercised"
Trivialize	"One piece won't matter"
Deny	"It's not real sugar"

Why it matters: Explains why people double down on beliefs when confronted with contradictory evidence (changing belief would create more dissonance due to past commitments).

Application: Notice when you're rationalizing. Dissonance signals: your actions don't match your values. Either change behavior or honestly reconsider the value.

Confirmation Bias

Definition: Tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information confirming existing beliefs.

Mechanisms:

• Selective attention: Notice evidence supporting belief
• Biased interpretation: Ambiguous evidence interpreted as support
• Selective memory: Remember supporting evidence better

Example:

• Believe "vaccines are dangerous" → Notice news about vaccine injuries, ignore safety data
• Believe "I'm bad at math" → Notice failures, dismiss successes as luck

Not the same as:

• Motivated reasoning: Goal is to reach desired conclusion (emotion-driven)
• Confirmation bias: Goal is to confirm existing belief (cognitively automatic)

Why it exists: Efficiency. Re-evaluating all beliefs constantly would be exhausting. Confirmation bias allows quick decisions based on existing frameworks.

Cost: Prevents learning, updating beliefs, recognizing errors.

Mitigation:

• Actively seek disconfirming evidence
• Ask: "What would prove me wrong?"
• Consider opposite position seriously

Correlation vs. Causation

Correlation: Two variables change together (when A increases, B increases or decreases).

Causation: One variable causes change in another (A → B).

All causation involves correlation. Not all correlation implies causation.

Classic confusion:

• Ice cream sales correlate with drowning deaths
• Wrong conclusion: Ice cream causes drowning
• Actual cause: Hot weather causes both (confounding variable)

Possible explanations for correlation:

Explanation	Example
A causes B	Smoking causes lung cancer
B causes A	Lung cancer causes people to quit smoking (reverse causation)
C causes both A and B	Heat causes ice cream sales and drowning (confounding)
Coincidence	Nicolas Cage movies correlate with pool drownings (spurious)
Complex interaction	Poverty, education, health all interact bidirectionally

Why psychology rarely "proves" causation:

• Can't randomly assign many variables (ethics, practicality)
• Observational studies show correlation, not causation
• Experiments needed for causation (manipulate variable, control others)

Language precision:

• ✅ "associated with," "linked to," "correlated with"
• ❌ "proves," "causes," "leads to" (unless true experiment)

Application: When you see health/psychology claim, ask: "Is this correlation or causation? What else could explain this relationship?"

Behavioral Terms

Operant vs. Classical Conditioning

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov, 1897):

• Definition: Learning through association; neutral stimulus paired with meaningful stimulus becomes meaningful itself
• Formula: Unconditioned stimulus (US) + Neutral stimulus → Neutral becomes conditioned stimulus (CS) → Conditioned response (CR)
• Example: Dog salivates (US: food) → Bell rings with food → Bell alone (CS) → Salivation (CR)
• Human example: Anxiety at dentist (pain + office → office alone triggers anxiety)

Operant Conditioning (Skinner, 1938):

• Definition: Learning through consequences; behavior followed by reward increases, behavior followed by punishment decreases
• Formula: Behavior → Consequence → Behavior change
• Types:
  • Positive reinforcement: Add something pleasant (praise) → Behavior increases
  • Negative reinforcement: Remove something unpleasant (pain relief) → Behavior increases
  • Positive punishment: Add something unpleasant (scolding) → Behavior decreases
  • Negative punishment: Remove something pleasant (take away phone) → Behavior decreases

Key difference:

• Classical: Involuntary, reflexive, emotional (associations)
• Operant: Voluntary, goal-directed, instrumental (consequences)

Aspect	Classical	Operant
Discovered by	Pavlov	Skinner
Type of behavior	Reflexive, automatic	Voluntary, intentional
Learning process	Association	Consequences
Example	Fear response to stimulus	Studying to get good grade

Application: Recognize when behavior is emotionally conditioned (anxiety, cravings—classical) vs. consequence-driven (procrastination, habits—operant). Different interventions needed.

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic Motivation:

• Definition: Driven by internal rewards; doing activity for its own sake
• Sources: Interest, curiosity, mastery, autonomy, purpose
• Example: Reading for enjoyment, playing music for fun, solving puzzles

Characteristics:

• Sustainable long-term
• Associated with deeper learning
• Resilient to obstacles
• Self-reinforcing (doing it is the reward)

Extrinsic Motivation:

• Definition: Driven by external rewards or avoidance of punishment
• Sources: Money, grades, praise, fear of punishment
• Example: Studying to get A, working for paycheck, cleaning to avoid nagging

Characteristics:

• Effective short-term
• Stops when reward/punishment removed
• Can undermine intrinsic motivation (overjustification effect)
• Shallow processing, surface engagement

Overjustification Effect (Deci, 1971): Adding extrinsic rewards to intrinsically motivated activity can reduce intrinsic motivation.

Classic study:

• Children who liked drawing were paid to draw
• Later drew less when not paid
• Reason: Shifted motivation from "I draw because I enjoy it" to "I draw for money"

Complexity: Not all extrinsic motivation undermines intrinsic.

• Controlling rewards ("Do this to get reward") → Undermining
• Informational rewards ("This recognizes your skill") → Can support intrinsic motivation

Application: To sustain motivation, cultivate intrinsic sources (autonomy, mastery, purpose). Use extrinsic rewards carefully—they're powerful but can backfire.

Clinical Terms Often Misused

Trauma

Clinical definition (DSM-5): Exposure to actual or threatened death, serious injury, or sexual violence through:

• Direct experience
• Witnessing it happen to others
• Learning it happened to close friend/family
• Repeated/extreme exposure to details (first responders)

Followed by: Intrusive symptoms, avoidance, negative mood changes, hyperarousal (PTSD criteria)

Colloquial misuse: "I'm so traumatized by that embarrassing moment."

Why distinction matters: Trivializes actual trauma (serious, often debilitating condition).

Better language: "That was really embarrassing/upsetting/distressing" (unless actually traumatic by clinical definition).

OCD (Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder)

Clinical definition:

• Obsessions: Intrusive, unwanted thoughts causing severe anxiety
• Compulsions: Repetitive behaviors performed to reduce anxiety
• Distress: Significantly impairs daily functioning
• Time: Consumes 1+ hours/day

Example: Fear of contamination (obsession) → Hours of hand-washing until skin bleeds (compulsion)

Colloquial misuse: "I'm so OCD about organizing my desk."

What you mean: Preference for order, perfectionism, or just being neat.

Why distinction matters: OCD is debilitating, not quirky. Misuse trivializes severe mental illness and increases stigma.

Better language: "I prefer things organized," "I'm particular about cleanliness," "I have high standards."

Psychopath vs. Sociopath vs. Antisocial Personality Disorder

Clinical term: Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD) (DSM-5)

• Pattern of disregard for others' rights
• Violates norms, laws
• Deceitfulness, impulsivity
• Lack of remorse

Psychopath (not official diagnosis):

• Theoretical construct (Hare's Psychopathy Checklist)
• Traits: Superficial charm, grandiosity, lack of empathy, manipulation, emotional deficit
• Often associated with ASPD but distinct (not all ASPD are psychopaths)

Sociopath (not official diagnosis):

• Colloquial term, less precise
• Sometimes used to emphasize environmental causes (abuse, trauma) vs. biological (psychopathy)
• Blurred boundaries with psychopathy

Key point: Psychopath and sociopath are not clinical diagnoses. ASPD is. Media overuses these terms dramatically.

Distinction:

Term	Status	Emphasis
ASPD	Official DSM-5 diagnosis	Behavioral pattern (violates rules/rights)
Psychopath	Research construct	Personality traits (lack empathy, remorse)
Sociopath	Colloquial	Environmental causation

Application: Don't casually call people "psychopaths" or "sociopaths." These are serious conditions (or theoretical constructs), not insults for jerks.

Gaslighting

Definition (from 1938 play Gas Light): Psychological manipulation making victim doubt their perception, memory, or sanity.

Mechanism:

• Deny reality ("That never happened")
• Dismiss feelings ("You're too sensitive")
• Trivialize concerns ("You're overreacting")
• Shift blame ("You made me do it")
• Rewrite history ("I never said that")

Systematic pattern, not isolated disagreement.

Example:

• Partner says hurtful thing → Denies saying it → Insists you're "crazy" or "making it up" → Repeatedly undermines your confidence in your perception.

Colloquial misuse: "He disagreed with me—he's gaslighting!"

Not gaslighting:

• Honest disagreement about facts
• Different perspectives or memories
• One-time denial or dismissiveness

Gaslighting requires: Intentional, repeated pattern aimed at undermining someone's reality.

Why distinction matters: Real gaslighting is abusive. Overuse dilutes seriousness and trivializes actual manipulation.

Application: If someone repeatedly makes you question your sanity or perception as a pattern, it's gaslighting. If it's one disagreement, it's just disagreement.

Terminology Precision Matters

Psychology terms in popular culture often drift from clinical meaning:

• Precision lost (OCD → just organized)
• Stigma added (psychopath → insult)
• Trivialization (trauma → minor upset)

Using terms correctly:

• Reduces stigma (doesn't trivialize real conditions)
• Improves communication (people know what you mean)
• Aids self-understanding (recognize patterns accurately)
• Respects clinical reality (these are real diagnoses, not metaphors)

When in doubt: Use descriptive language instead of clinical labels.

Don't say: "I'm so bipolar about this decision."
Say: "I'm ambivalent" or "I keep changing my mind."

Don't say: "That's triggering my PTSD."
Say: "That's upsetting" (unless you actually have PTSD).

Precision in psychology vocabulary matters because language shapes how we think about minds, emotions, and behavior—both in ourselves and others.

Use the right words. Understand what they mean. Respect their weight.

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Essential Readings

Personality and Individual Differences:

• Jung, C. G. (1921/1971). Psychological Types. Princeton: Princeton University Press. [Introversion/extroversion origins]
• Cain, S. (2012). Quiet: The Power of Introverts in a World That Can't Stop Talking. New York: Crown. [Accessible treatment of introversion]
• Leary, M. R. (1983). "Social Anxiousness: The Construct and Its Measurement." Journal of Personality Assessment, 47(1), 66-75. [Shyness definition]

Empathy and Emotion:

• Rogers, C. R. (1959). "A Theory of Therapy, Personality and Interpersonal Relationships as Developed in the Client-centered Framework." In S. Koch (Ed.), Psychology: A Study of a Science (Vol. 3). New York: McGraw-Hill. [Empathy in therapy]
• Neff, K. D. (2003). "Self-Compassion: An Alternative Conceptualization of a Healthy Attitude Toward Oneself." Self and Identity, 2(2), 85-101. [Compassion research]
• Brown, B. (2013). Daring Greatly. New York: Gotham. [Empathy vs. sympathy distinctions]

Defense Mechanisms:

• Freud, A. (1936). The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defense. London: Hogarth Press. [Classic treatment]
• Vaillant, G. E. (1992). Ego Mechanisms of Defense: A Guide for Clinicians and Researchers. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press. [Modern empirical approach]
• Cramer, P. (2006). Protecting the Self: Defense Mechanisms in Action. New York: Guilford Press. [Contemporary research]

Cognitive Dissonance and Biases:

• Festinger, L. (1957). A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Stanford: Stanford University Press. [Original theory]
• Tavris, C., & Aronson, E. (2007). Mistakes Were Made (But Not by Me). Orlando: Harcourt. [Accessible treatment of dissonance and self-justification]
• Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, Fast and Slow. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. [Confirmation bias and heuristics]

Learning and Conditioning:

• Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and Human Behavior. New York: Macmillan. [Operant conditioning]
• Pavlov, I. P. (1927). Conditioned Reflexes. London: Oxford University Press. [Classical conditioning original]
• Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior. New York: Plenum. [Intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation]

Clinical Terms:

• American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing. [Official diagnostic criteria]
• Hare, R. D. (1993). Without Conscience: The Disturbing World of the Psychopaths Among Us. New York: Pocket Books. [Psychopathy research]
• Stern, R. (2007). The Gaslight Effect. New York: Harmony Books. [Gaslighting in relationships]

Language and Stigma:

• Corrigan, P. W., & Watson, A. C. (2002). "Understanding the Impact of Stigma on People with Mental Illness." World Psychiatry, 1(1), 16-20. [Stigma research]
• Link, B. G., & Phelan, J. C. (2001). "Conceptualizing Stigma." Annual Review of Sociology, 27, 363-385. [Stigma theory]

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